As fighting intensifies in the mineral-rich Democratic Republic of Congo between the DRC’s Army and the Rwandan-sponsored rebel group M23, and protests break out in Congo, there are fears of worsening stability and the potential for war in Central Africa, In this article, we briefly explore the social, contextual and historical roots of the crisis facing DRC
The Democratic Republic of Congo is one of the most mineral-rich nations on the planet, with an estimated $24tn worth of untapped minerals (Largest producer of Cobalt ore, 4th largest copper producer, 30% of world's diamond reserves...). However, with GDP per capita at around $695, this wealth has not been distributed nor benefited the Congolese people. Economic prosperity has not been achieved for a variety of reasons:
· Poor governance and rampant corruption within government.
· Conflict between rebel militias and DRC army creating internal discourse.
· Rwandan tension.
· Neo-colonialism (factored in with poor governance/corruption).
The GDP in DRC (2023) was around $69bn, with agriculture and mining accounting for over ¾ of employment. It is estimated over 40,000 children work in the poor conditions of the Cobalt mines. 62% of women engage in the labour market, with around 6% in actual wage employment.
Contextual History
Note: Before this, the Kongo empire existed. It was then found and ruled over by the Portuguese and disbanded in the wake of the Atlantic slave trade.
The Congo Free State
Between 1885-1908, the DRC was known as the Congo Free State, a private colony of Belgian King Leopold II. This was annexed by the Belgian state in 1908 until independence in 1960.
Leopold’s period in power was known as the “Rubber Terror”. As demand for automobiles and bicycles grew in the west, so did demand for rubber. Rubber was collected using a native labour force (including children) who had to meet quotas. Failure to meet these quotas resulted in rape, mutilation, torture, and kidnapping of family members - conducted by private mercenaries and overseen by officials. Disease was also rampant due to poor conditions. It is estimated between 5-10 million people died during this period.
Cannibalism was also another factor that resulted in a great deal of deaths. The Belgians initially overlooked this during their rule and later outlawed the practice. But cannibalism (rooted in ideas of tribalism) is believed to still be practiced in DRC to this day.
Belgian Congo
After Belgium’s annexation, conditions did not change much. However, a great deal of investment from Western corporations flowed in, and Belgian Congo provided rubber for the allies (in WW1) and 1440 tons of uranium used in the Manhattan Project
Independence
DRC gained its independence in 1960 during the Cold War (2 years before the Cuban missile crisis) and elected a Prime Minister: Patrice Lumumba. In the wake of this, a rebel Belgian-sponsored movement formed, prompting a UN peacekeeping mission in DRC. In 1961, a military coup supported by the US and Belgium occurred, resulting in Lumumba’s death. The rebels are later defeated, and in 1965, Mobutu Sese Soko comes to power in a CIA-backed coup. Soko’s thirty-two-year tenure is marred with corruption and embezzlement of DRC’s resources. Mobutu was also a staunch supporter of the US in the Cold War. In 1991 (end of the Cold War), Mobutu appoints a transitional government (on the behest of the US) and appoints himself president.
In 1996, DRC was invaded by Rwanda and Uganda to root out perpetrators of the Tutsi genocide, and a second war occurred in 1998 between DRC and Rwanda. The Belligerents of this conflict included 7 states and various state-sponsored militias.
Patrice Lumumba
On Rwanda
Rwanda, DRC’S eastern neighbour, also has a colonial history like most of Africa. It was initially occupied by Germany in 1899. After WW1, it was ruled indirectly by both Germany and Belgium and achieved independence from Belgium and rejected union with neighbour Burundi in 1962. Primary exports of Rwanda currently are coffee, tea, and tin.
To understand Rwanda’s role in DRC and the wider crisis, we need to understand the Rwandan genocide, its roots, and three main ethnic groups: Tutsi (14%), Hutus (85%), and the Twa (1%). The Tutsi – cattle herders and owners were wealthier than the Hutus – primarily farmers, creating an economic divide, and the Twa were mainly jungle-dwellers. The rift between the Tutsi and Hutu was further exacerbated by the colonialists who demanded all local leaders should be Tutsi. In 1959, after the death of the Tutsi king, Hutus began rebelling/killing, causing 100,000+ Tutsi to flee to Uganda. After the first election in 1961, an anti-Tutsi Nationalist Hutu government came to power.
Civil War
The years following were marked by violence between the Tutsi and Hutu, and a period of segregation ensued with Tutsi being denied jobs. Meanwhile, the Tutsi in Uganda formed their freedom-fighting group (RPF). In 1990, the RPF launched their invasion to reclaim their homeland. Hutu Government officials ordered the killings of the Tutsi.
Rwandan Genocide
In April 1994, the plane in which Habyarimana (Hutu president) was flying was shot down; it is believed to have been shot down by either extremist Hutu or RPF forces. Subsequently, the Rwandan Armed forces and Hutu Militia groups began slaughtering the Tutsi in the capital Kigali. This spread through the country to the point where Government officials were rewarding killings and encouraging them via radio broadcasts. Belgian peacekeepers were also killed, resulting in UN withdrawal, and there was very little international intervention excepting France (supporter of the Hutu government), which is believed to have “enabled” the genocide and abetted the escape of Hutu officials
It is believed between 500,000 – 1,000,000 Tutsi were killed and 10,000 Twa.
This prompted the RPF to return to fighting and consequently they retook most of the country by July, causing a mass exodus of over 2 million Hutu into what is now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo.
In recent times, the UK government has proposed to send refugees to Rwanda. Coincidentally, Rwanda has created over a million refugees since the genocide.
March 23 Movement (M23) and the Forces for Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR)
M23 is a Tutsi-led and Rwandan/Ugandan-sponsored Congolese rebel group that claims to protect the rights of the Tutsi. They accuse the DRC Government of aiding and abetting Hutu perpetrators and militias (even though M23 themselves have killed Tutsi). The FDLR is a group formed by Rwandan Hutus linked to the genocide who have also previously collaborated with the DRC government to fight Rwandan/Tutsi militias. M23 is accused of violating human rights, including killings and rape. Currently, they are advancing towards the city of Goma as fighting ensues. Note that these are the two main militia groups; M23 was formed in 2012, and FDLR in 2000. However, both groups have engaged in periods of dormancy but are assimilated and associated with both the DRC/Rwandan government and armed forces. It is believed that Rwanda is sponsoring rebels to take control of DRC’s vast mineral wealth and not based on what M23 claims.
M23: Approx. 5500 troops
Armed Forces of DRC: Approx. 100,000 troops
FDLR: Approx. 6500 troops
Rwandan Defence Force: Approx. 35,000 troops
Both M23 and FDLR have used child soldiers before. There are over 250 local and 15 non-state armed groups active in Eastern DRC, some of which claim to defend certain ethnic groups (e.g., CODECO) but continue to commit atrocities against Congolese people. With over 6 million dead in DRC since 1996 and over 5 million displaced, there seems to be no end to the carnage in DRC.
International Response
Rwanda is also building up its troop presence at the DRC border, denies backing M23, and has rejected US and French calls for withdrawal. Rwanda also has an ailing relationship with its Southern Neighbour Burundi, with their shared border being closed early this year.
Final Thoughts
In the novel "Heart of Darkness" (Set in DRC), Joseph Conrad describes life as a “mysterious arrangement of merciless logic for a futile purpose.” This resonates particularly for the Central Africa Region where people continue to suffer on the whims of corrupt governments, barbaric militias, and roguish corporations.